Socrates Vs Socrates - 1704 Words

Socrates and Aristotle would think that philosophy was for the greater good and expanding the minds of those around them. Socrates in particular would regard philosophy as conversational and weeding out those who ‘know’ and those who do not. Aristotle would use philosophy to try to reach the conclusion on what happiness is. These great thinkers believed absolute contemplation was the greatest pleasure human beings could reach, so for them philosophy was reaching a type of Nirvana. Take the Apology as an example of what Socrates thought about philosophy. When charged with atheism and corrupting the youth he defends himself by claiming he is an ignorant man. Socrates is on a search for the wisest man after being told by an oracle that it is†¦show more content†¦Sadly, we know of Socrates’ fate and with him trying to change Athens for the better it backfires on him. But, Socrates leaves those who attended his trial his with some final words that speak to who he is and how he felt about what he was doing regarding his philosophy. â€Å"If, I say, now, when, as I conceive and imagine, God orders me to fulfil the philosophers mission of searching into myself and other men, I were to desert my post through fear of death, or any other fear; that would indeed be strange, and I might justly be arraigned in court for denying the existence of the gods, if I disobeyed the oracle because I was afraid of death: then I should be fancying that I was wise when I was not wise. For this fear of death is indeed the pretence of wisdom, and not real wisdom, being the appearance of knowing the unknown; since no one knows whether death, which they in their fear apprehend to be the greatest evil, may not be the greatest good† (Apology, Plato). As I stated in my introduction Socrates and Aristotle believed that contemplative thought was the highest form of human life. That this concept of thinking and attempting to answer life’s hardest question s was the best thing to occur to any human being. When looking at their point of view of what is the highest kind of pleasure a human can achieve it begs the question if that isShow MoreRelatedAristophanes Vs Socrates1472 Words   |  6 Pages ARISTOPHANES VERSES PLATO’S VIEW OF SOCRATES Student’s Name Course Name Date Introduction The historical story of Socrates depicts why he was able to attract critics and followers from different geographical locations. A more profound assessment of his biography reveals how his arrogance put him on the wrong side of the law on many occasions throughout his life. It is essential to note that the significance of Socrates contribution to the society cannot be sidelined based on theRead MoreSocrates vs Protagoras1705 Words   |  7 PagesPhilosophy Socrates a sophist? Or just sophisticated? Plato goes a long way in attempting to distinguish Socrates from the likes of Protagoras, a self admitted sophist. In Protagoras, Socrates is depicted as a street smart, wisdom dispensing young man, brash with confidence and a bit of arrogance that goes a long way when confronted with the old school rhetoric of Protagoras. Plato begins to separate the two at the hip right from the get go. The dialogue between Socrates and his inquisitive friendRead MoreEssay about Socrates vs Gilgamesh1173 Words   |  5 PagesJoe Arce 19 Sept 2011 Socrates Vs. Gilgamesh Socrates’ view of death in the Phaedo, Crito, and Apology is complex. His argument tries to prove that philosophers, of all people, are in the best state to die or will be in the best state after life because of the life they lead. Socrates’ views are sharply contrasted in The Epic of Gilgamesh. In fact, he would probably say that Gilgamesh had not lived the proper kind of life and his views of life, and death would le ad to an unsettled existence in theRead MorePhilosophy Socrates vs. Taoism2554 Words   |  11 Pagesphilosophies have developed a vast segregation from one another. The geographical and cultural distance between eastern and western civilization determined massive differences between the two. On the other hand, the works of ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, and some eastern philosophies like Taoism have many of the same or common ideas and concepts. Both eastern and western philosophies regardless of having similarities have distinctive differences when examining the view of the conception of the goodRead MoreSocrates Vs. Plato s Lysis1244 Words   |  5 Pagesthis kind of companionship, just as Socrates does in Plato’s Lysis. In this philosophical dialogue, Socrates and his peers debate potential theories concerning the reasons why people become friends with one another. Several theories are developed, but throughout the dialogue Socrates counters his own arguments in order to achieve further understanding of his inquiry. As they deliberate the true nature of friendship, Plato’s writing parallels his teacher, Socrates’ style because it ends in perplexityRead MoreSocrates Vs Socrates Similarities1577 Words   |  7 PagesThere is no doubt to the fact that Socrates and Martin Luther King Jr. had similar characteristics—whether it be their willingness to make the public aware or their passion to do what was right to them. But to say that Martin Luther King Jr. is a twentieth century Socrates does not seem fit to par. The way I will attempt for you to understand this will proceed as follows: I will first explain each of our character’s stories, perhaps heavily implicating some of their most distinct characteristicsRead MoreSocrates Vs. The Prince1842 Words   |  8 PagesSocrates vs. The Prince Niccolà ² Machiavelli, a Florentine philosopher and political aficionado from the 16th century and Socrates, a classical Athenian savant who lived during the 5th century B.C., are both judged as being forefathers to modern western political science and thought. The two great men both came from erratic epochs within their respective nations of Italy and Greece: wars, transitions of power, and domestic conflicts left their countries void of sustainable leadership and in desperateRead MoreSocrates Vs Machiavelli2003 Words   |  9 Pages Socrates VS Machiavelli The debate on how people should rule has been going on since the dawn of time. Many agree and many disagree but they all agree that we should have a ruling force of some kind but what and how much has been very controversial. Niccolo Machiavelli and Socrates were two very important and revolutionary political philosophers for their time. Machiavelli’s â€Å"The Prince and the Discourses† outlines Machiavelli’s idealRead MoreSocrates Vs Crito1522 Words   |  7 Pagesstate, i.e. punishment in reaction to unjust acts, will be advocated for. To this end, I will argue that Socrates could be justified in escaping because doing so could have punished the Laws of Athens, which would have helped the Laws maintain their virtue. This argument exists in two parts. First, I will use the three Laws speeches from the Crito in attempt to show that it is just for Socrates to punish the Laws. Next, I will use the same three speeches as well as the original verdict g iven in theRead MoreAthens vs Socrates1521 Words   |  7 Pagesenthusiastic in carrying out policies that pass in the assembly. Pericles, an Athenian statesman, makes it clear when he says that each individual is interested not only in his own affairs but in the affairs of the state as well (p.147 Thucydides). Socrates, a Greek philosopher, is a firm believer in examining ones actions in life and ensuring that a morally righteous life is being led. He argues that the ordinary Athenian citizen is not concerned with being a righteous person, but rather with maintaining

Michael Collins’ Free Essays

Between the white knuckle intensity, the bombastic array of explosions, the sinister factionalism and the multitude of conspiratorial machinations, director Neil Jordan’s Michael Collins comes off like political history re-imagined in the vein of the gangster film. As an ambitious attempt to chronicle the life and times of one of the most important figures in Ireland’s violent struggles for independence from the British Empire, it is intelligently well-made. But it is also problematic, because it makes an obscure political struggle even more obscure by trivializing it in the way that much of historical cinema has trivialized history: emphasizing the emotional highs and lows of its protagonists at the expense of the events it uses as its foundation. We will write a custom essay sample on Michael Collins’ or any similar topic only for you Order Now Considering that Michael Collins’ epochal content is fundamentally tied to present day conflicts, namely the seemingly endless one in Northern Ireland, this is rather troubling. Collins is credited with inventing guerilla warfare, and bringing world attention to the Irish cause by forcing the English to cede authority in certain parts of his native soil and initiating a movement for an independent Irish republic. Having seen many historical dramas before, I immediately assumed that Jordan was going to spend the entire length of the film demonstrating Collins’ greatness. I was pleasantly surprised to see that while Jordan does question some of Collins’ character attributes and decisions, he fashions a historical account that somehow absolves Collins of the present state of Ireland. Jordan presents Collins, played with hearty vigor by Academy Award nominee Liam Neeson, glowing from the residual acclaim of Schindler’s List, as a patriot whose dedication to the annihilation of British rule in Ireland was compromised by the people around him. The film opens with a terrible bombardment by the English upon Irish freedom fighters, which establishes the unforgiving demand of obedience that the English crown maintained without any pretense of subtlety. Some years later, one of them named Collins is released from jail, whereupon he proceeds to give impassioned speeches as the self-dubbed Minister of Mayhem. Collins argues that the disastrous defeat in 1916 proves that a straightforward battle against the occupying British presence is an invitation to defeat. He proposes that they plant bombs to deliver unobstructed carnage to those who would oppose Irish independence. The film plays this up as an action of last resort in which Collins and his men have been forced to use violence because of the unyielding nature of the anti-independents. Yet despite to airing this sentiment frequently to his best friend/confidant/rival Harry Boland (as played by Aidan Quinn), Collins has no qualms about using the intelligence offered by a sympathetic copper played by the downtrodden hangdog face of The Crying Game’s Stephen Rea. The escalating acts of violence put the British in the uncomfortable position of acceding to negotiations, and former Republic president Eamon de Valera, as portrayed with vague menace by versatile character actor Alan Rickman, delegates Collins as a representative on his behalf. Collins recognizes his own shortcomings as a politico: the best he could negotiate was self-governance for South Ireland with allegiance to the Crown still in place. It is this halfway point of reconciliation between Ireland and the Crown that Collins argues is the best attainable agreement of the time. De Valera proceeds to disassociate himself from Collins, while Collins has a falling out with Boland, and the upset leads to civil war. Eventually, Collins dies at the hands of an assassin, which Jordan implies to have been approved by De Valera. Jordan’s Collins ultimately comes off as a violent underdog who repackages himself as a liaison between his countrymen and the occupying forces, trading in the downtrodden charisma of a scruffy brown coat with the sharp glamour of a well pressed uniform, not unlike a German officer who approves of Hitler because of the blessings in his life under Nazism. This isn’t to say that Collins was some kind of fascist, but that his frequently celebrated talents for political expedience still fall short under the lens of critical examination. After all, his agitator’s approach to moving the Irish cause forward still hasn’t brought peace today. In the meantime, conventional history writes De Valera off as a duplicitous sell out, and Jordan doesn’t attempt to challenge that view, choosing instead to portray Collins as a heroic patriot. This strikes me as strange, since Collins is the man who initiated violence and then insisted that violence must stop, leaving us with a rather ambiguous and maybe ambivalent definition of what heroism and patriotism is. Â   Â   How to cite Michael Collins’, Essay examples

Taxation Calculation Income Tax Assessment Act

Question: Discuss about the Taxation Calculation for Income Tax Assessment Act. Answer: 1. The income Tax assessment Act 1997 provides that income tax is payable on assessable income. The assessable income is further classified into two categories ordinary income and statutory income. The section 6-5(1) of the ITAA 1997, provides that assessable income includes income from ordinary concepts. The income from ordinary concepts is not defined under the act but it is considered that amount which an ordinary people would consider as income (Woellner et al. 2016). There are three components of ordinary income: Income from personal exertion for example salary and wages etc; Income from carrying business for example farming, retail selling etc; Income from property for example interest, rent, dividends etc; The income from personal exertion is also known as personal service income. These incomes are mainly derived from the personal skill and effort of an individual. An income is classified as personal service income if more than 50% of the amount received in the contract is due to personal skill, labor and expertise. The income received by the financial professionals, medical practitioners, construct workers etc are example of personal service income. There are certain incomes which are not included in the personal service income they are selling or supplying goods, providing the right to use property, using an asset which is used for generating income etc. Therefore, the important part is to determine whether an income is a personal service income. In order to determine whether an income is a personal service income four tests must be applied. These four tests applied are results test, unrelated client test, the employment test and the business premises tests. The result test The result test is satisfied if an individual complies the following conditions for at least 75% of the personal service income: The payment is received after the completion of the work under the contract or arrangements; The individual provides the equipment or tools to execute the work; The individual is liable to rectify the defects or is required to pay the damages; The result test considers if the payment is received after achieving the specific outcome or result. If an individual does not satisfy the result test then it should be considered whether the 80% of the income is received from one source. The unrelated client In order to satisfy this test an individual is required to fulfill the following conditions: The income is received from two unrelated clients; The services are provided to the clients on an offer or advertisement made to the public at large; The employment Test In order to satisfy this test an individual is required to have the following: The 20% of the principle work is performed by the employee, partners or other contractors; If the above condition is not satisfied then the individual must have an apprentice for last half of the income year. The last test is the business premises test that is required for determining personal business income and not personal service income. In the given case, Hilary is a mountain climber and she has entered into an agreement with daily terror to write her story. The story was published and she received the payment from daily terror newspaper. She also sold the manuscript and several photographs to Mitchell library for $5000 and $2000 respectively. It is required to be ascertained whether three payment received by Hillary are income from personal exertion. For this purpose, the tests are applied to determine the nature of the income. The result test required that there should be a contract between the parties and the payment is to be received after the contract is completed. In this case, Hilary had an arrangement with daily terror to write her story without any assistance from ghostwriters. The result tests are satisfied therefore it can be concluded that the income received from Daily Terror is income from personal exertion. The other two incomes received from selling of photographs and manuscripts does not satisfy any tests therefore this two incomes are not income from personal exertion (Smith 2015). If she wrote the story for her personal satisfaction and then decides to sell it later then as there are no agreement between beforehand so the income will not be income from personal exertion. It is because the result test makes it mandatory there should be an agreement but there is no agreement in this case so the test is failed. The unrelated client test is also failed, as there is no advertisement is made in the public. On the basis of the analysis it can be concluded that if the store is written for her satisfactions and is sold later then it is not an income from personal exertion. 2. In Australia, Australian Taxation Office generally taxes an individual on income received, interest received, dividend received, capital gains and may others. The general rule is that if the gift is not covered within the taxable income then they are not taxed. There is no gift tax that is to be paid in Australia provided the gifts are made within the allowable amount. It is provided that maximum allowable amount is $30000.00 for five financial year and the amount should not exceed $10000.00 in any one year (Duff 2016). Various case studies related to gifts provide example of gifts that are not taxable: There is no gift tax on gift to son; There is no gift tax on gifts to sisters; There is no gift tax for bringing in large sum of money from parents for purchasing property; There is no gift tax for if the parent decides to sell the property and buy each son house; There is no gift for giving back money as gift to children All this examples of gifts are based on the case study of Hayes V FCT (1956), Scott V FCT (1974) and Smith V FCT (1988). Therefore, from the above case studies it can be seen that providing a large sum of money to son is not liable to tax if the rules laid down by the government are followed. The rules states that loan should be properly documented. The parents are required to create deed of trust documents and should record that with county in which the residence is located. The law also provides that the mortgage and promissory note should be executed between the parent and the child. This will provide as evidence that the funds provided are loan and not gift. The loan document should include the details of terms, interest rate and transferability of the property. It is to be noted that if the loans are forgiven by the parent and are not perused by them for collection then it will amount to gift. The children are then required to declare the loan as income and pay tax on it. The maximum amount that a parent can gift a child without incurring tax liability is $10000.00. In the given case parent has provided short-term loan to son for $40000.00 on the agreement that the loan will be repaid by the son at the end of five years amounting to $50000.00. There was no formal agreement between the parent and son about the loan further there are no securities for the sum lent. The son has repaid the loan and also an additional amount equal to 5% p.a on the amount borrowed. Based on the existing rules as loan document was not executed between the parents and child then this loan will amount to gift and it will be subjected to tax in excess of permissible amount. Therefore, it should be noted that loan provided to son in excess of the permissible limit would increase the assessable income of the parents. 3.(a) The Capital gain or capital loss of the individual can be calculated under two methods. These methods are indexation method and discount method among the two, which is more suitable for the taxpayer, is chosen. In the given case capital gains under indexation method are $ 561,458.33 and the capital gain under discounting method are $325,000.00. So an individual should opt for discount method for reducing tax. Statement showing computation of capital Gain Particulars Using Indexation method Using Discount method Sale Proceeds $ 800,000.00 $ 800,000.00 Less: Cost Base $ 238,541.67 $ 150,000.00 Capital Gain $ 561,458.33 $ 650,000.00 Discount(50%) $ - $ 325,000.00 Net Capital Gain $ 561,458.33 $ 325,000.00 Calculation of Indexation factor CPI for September 1990 68.7 CPI for September 1986 43.2 Indexation factor 1.590278 (b) Statement showing computation of capital Gain Particulars Using Indexation method Using Discount method Sale Proceeds $ 200,000.00 $ 200,000.00 Less: Cost Base $ 238,514.67 $ 150,000.00 Capital Gain $ (38,514.67) $ 50,000.00 Discount(50%) $ - $ 25,000.00 Net Capital Gain/(loss) $ (38,514.67) $ 25,000.00 If the sale proceed is $200,000.00 then individual should opt for indexation method as it will help to save tax. (c ) Statement showing computation of capital Gain Particulars Using Indexation method Using Discount method Sale Proceeds $ 800,000.00 $ 800,000.00 Less: Cost Base $ 238,541.67 $ 150,000.00 Capital Gain $ 561,458.33 $ 650,000.00 In discount method, a discount of 50% is applicable in case of individual but no such discount is available for company. Therefore, in this case the capital gain is less under indexation method than the discount method. Reference Duff, D.G., 2016. Alternatives to the Gift and Estate Tax.Boston College Law Review,57. Smith, J., 2015. Australian state income taxation: a historical perspective.Available at SSRN 2704627. Woellner, R., Barkoczy, S., Murphy, S., Evans, C. and Pinto, D., 2016.Australian Taxation Law 2016. Oxford University Press.

Twilight Zone free essay sample

Ever wonder what a party during the famed, Mardi Gras day would be like when an old rich man is on his deathbed while his greedy family is bedside? In Serling’s episode, â€Å"The Masks† in the famed tv show, The Twilight Zone, Jason Foster is the dying old rich man whose views of his family members are most beneficial and realistic for the viewer as he forces them to wear grotesque masks which inevitably is the antithesis of what the family sees themselves as. The realistic personalities of the family members are brought to the surface rather than the family members’ worldviews of selflessness, greed, and immaturity, as Foster permanently engrains the masks of reality into their true faces. The first way in which the masks are used to showcase as to why Jason Foster’s views of his family members are more realistic starts from the first incident where he reconciles with his family only at the ending of his life. We will write a custom essay sample on Twilight Zone or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The fact the family has not seen their dying father until the very last day only shows how selfish they are. (They’re in it for the money) For example, Wilfred Harper puts on an act of love towards Jason yet all he sees are the dollar signs around him. Emily Harper, to her dismay is a self-centered for lack of a better word horrible daughter to Jason Foster for all she cares about is her feelings of discomfort rather than her poor father. Alas, the children, Paula Harper, the self-centered daughter who only cares about one thing only, the materialistic things of beauty and lastly, Wilfred Jar for lack of a better phrase is nothing but a sack of potatoes who was called an animal torturer. The motives of the family are clearly painted in the specific scene in the show, where Jason foster brings up his clever idea of wearing the masks during Maris Gras. Immediately, Paula and Wilfred Jr shut down the idea by putting both of their say in the situation. Yet, the parents (which are not really good parents) don’t even acknowledge and respect the idea of their old man but just let it linger. In fact, Wilfred states â€Å"we are at odds her, father† thus Jason Foster snaps into action and pin points the real reasons as to why the family decided to show up for a visit the day he is dying- to collect his fortune. Not denying it, Jason convinces the family Togo through with his plane by bribing them with his fortune. That right there shows the lack of compassion and the real movies of the family, especially the husband, Wilfred. In the end, the dying man, Foster takes care of his last set of business, by giving justice to the views. As this is all taken place in one room during Mardi Gras, at the end he yells viciously, â€Å"Without your masks, you are all caricatures! † This last set of words Foster exclaims. His haunting words showcases the reason for his voodoo tricks, to make the family realize who they really are. Jason Foster truly does unravel the views of his family members perfectly, as it goes to show most people even family have ulterior motives filled with greed and care about the betterment of themselves only!

Justification for punishment

Justification for punishment Free Online Research Papers Justification for Punishment Sociology Essay The concept of punishment and its practical application and justification during the past half-century have shown a marked deviance from efforts to reform and rehabilitate offenders. The four justifications for punishment currently used in our society today are retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation and societal protection. Punishment in its very concept is favorably perceived as a retributive practice. Our society uses these four forms of punishment attempting to lower crime rates. Retribution is the first of the four justifications for punishment I will be discussing. Retribution is defined as the moral vengeance to satisfy a society to make the offender suffer as much as the suffering caused. (Macionis pg244, 2007) This type of justification for punishment is the oldest of the four ways. This type of punishment was designed to satisfy the people’s need for a type of closure that satisfies the moral of society. In principle, punishment should be equal in severity to the deviance itself. (Macionis pg246) It all comes down to equal justice; An eye for and eye and a tooth for a tooth.(Macionis pg 244, 2007) One example of how retribution was used is Jeffery Dahmer’s punishment for the conviction and 15 confirmed murders throughout the course of his life. Dahmer was sentenced to 15 life sentences totaling 937 years imprisonment. The second of the four justifications for punishment is deterrence. Deterrence is the attempt to discourage crime by punishment. (Macionis pg244, 2007) This idea came about in the eighteenth century. Deterrence is a type of punishment that relies upon examples of punishment made known to everyone ahead of time before they choose to break the law. This concept is based on idea that citizens will not break the law if they think that the pain of the punishment will outweigh the pleasure of the crime. (Macionis pg244) Everyday on the way to work you have a choice to leave early reaching your destination without breaking the law by speeding. If you are late, you might choose to speed knowing the consequences of speeding ahead of time. A speeding ticket may be a worthy risk to someone who is late to work for the third day in a row. Murder on the other hand may not be a worthy risk since the pain of Murder’s punishment is much worse then a ticket to most citizens. Next is justification for punishment is through rehabilitation. This program was designed to reform the offender to prevent later offenses. (Macionis pg244) This idea rose among social sciences in the nineteenth century that proved to be an effective solution. If you can control the environment that a criminal or lawbreaker of some sort lives in, you can deviate from his normal society. Reformatories or houses of correction provided settings where people could learn proper behavior. (Macionis pg245) One common example of how rehabilitation is used today is when a drunk driver is convicted he may be sentenced to Alcoholics Anonymous meetings rather than jail time. Once the citizen has completed rehab, through the proper reformatory chosen for them, they can choose to stay on the same path of freedom contributing to society or go back to their old ways. Rehabilitation is the most forgiving and positive punishment of the four justifications discussed because it promises the offen der a second chance at life. Unlike retribution, which demands that the punishment fit the crime, rehabilitation tailors treatment to each offender. (Macionis pg245) The final option for a justification for punishment is the term societal protection. This favors the society by rendering the offender incapable of further offenses temporarily through imprisonment or permanently by execution. (Macionis pg245) This option of punishment differs from rehabilitation in that no special treatment is given to the offender in hopes to change him. His surrounding is a set area in a cell or exection chamber that many have used before him which protects society. This method can help be helpful to the offender giving the offender a chance to reform and a promised second chance. The United States currently incarcerates close to 2.2 million offenders in jail. As â€Å"in the Times explains, the crime rate has gone down in recent years, but the number of offenders locked up across the country has gone up, tripling since 1980. (Macionis pg245) In conclusion the four types of justification for punishment including retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and societal protection are all effective ways our society deals with lawbreakers. Each of these justifications is an attempt to protect society by ensuring proper punishment is carried out. Since crime has statistically dropped in the past 20 years we can conclude that our justice system has a positive effect on crime. Bibliography Fingarette, Herbert, 1978, Punishment and Suffering, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Association, 50, pp. 499-525. Sociology Eleventh Addition, John Macionis, 2007. Research Papers on Justification for punishmentCapital PunishmentComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)The Effects of Illegal ImmigrationPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 Europe

Beliefs Taken to the Extremes

Believing extreme faith is a fundamental characteristic of man. Faith in many things is a factor that helps people keep on living. Religion is one of the most powerful powers of human emotions, and these emotions often create dangerous situations. When people's religious beliefs reach an extreme level, innocent people may be hurt. There was an example of such a case in history. From the Inquisition in Israel to the battle in Ireland, the recent events in the World Trade Center, people have seen extreme religious beliefs. I think Christians argue that they believe extreme things. To become extreme. Even simple beliefs on monotheism can not be measured. In a sense, there are God, God, Almighty, omniscience, ubiquitous - creator of the universe. This is a belief that shakes the foundation of the earth. But who do you believe? In theology, many people believe it. But they do not believe in their beliefs. They will be questioned to believe what they believe. I believe in God. I believe in God. What does this mean, is there a god? How does this affect me? What does that mean for my reality? Believing extreme faith is a fundamental characteristic of man. Faith in many things is a factor that helps people keep on living. Religion is one of the most powerful powers of human emotions, and these emotions often create dangerous situations. When people's religious beliefs reach an extreme level, innocent people may be hurt. There was an example of such a case in history. Unlike professional sports, from university hearings to suicide bombers, college sports are very violent and unaffiliated by university stakeholders. Before 1850 there was nothing like university sports. College staff knows that students are seeking physical liberation, so the way to cope with the epidemic is through physical labor. They allow students to cultivate or cleanse debris from the university campus. University officials think this is positive as this gives the students body.

Wolfgang keller at konigsbrau-TAK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Wolfgang keller at konigsbrau-TAK - Essay Example Moreover, he does only what is necessary and not an inch more. He is not a man that would add extra value to his work out of passion, a man who doesn’t go beyond the call of duty. Keller has been an excellent coach to Brodsky in correctly pointing out his flaws and correcting them. Coaching someone requires precise measuring of a person to identify the flaws and then mold them. Keller rightly points out that Brodsky is too slow in taking effective action, and this habit of his affects overall performance of Brodsky as manager. The position that Brodsky works at requires not only robotic, repetitive work but requires abrupt changes in schedule and Keller realizes that Brodsky can’t handle tight deadlines. This shows when there is a change in formula or the brand. Distant management style of Brodsky does annoy Keller and he points it out. Keller also spots that Brodsky is least proactive, a quality that is very much needed in these competing business environment. There can be many actions that Keller can revert to upon returning to Kiev, however a certain pattern of actions can be taken that would serve the company in the long term. Keller is not supposed to fire Brodsky, as finding a replacement would be much harder and expensive than working on the current commercial director. Clearly there are many issues that Keller is having with Brodsky but he has the potential to improve as he possesses the right skills for this, only a little polishing is required. Reorganizing around Brodsky would sound better but it is not profitable. Market movements and competition don’t revolve around people. They have a mind of their own, its the company people that need to depend on the movement and adjust their actions accordingly. Split marketing and sales is a better option as it will help adjust to the business environment as well as adjustments within the work area. This would require giving Brodsky another chance, and a chance to

U.S. foreign policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6000 words

U.S. foreign policy - Essay Example The United States foreign policies have always been considered controversial – whether they are viewed as an American or as a foreigner. These policies have primarily been based on American and democratic interests being pursued beyond American shores.This expansion was also meant to empower its competition with the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, countries which were, at that time, considered to be more influential and more financially stable nations than the US.These policies were first laid out in the post World War II period as the country was starting to expand and flex its powers beyond its shores. The Second World War actually served as an equalizer for the US because much of Europe was in ruins as a result of years of fighting Germany. The US was able to gain strength and power politically and economically after WWII and it was also starting to voice its opinions and positions on the different international issues impacting on the global community. To some extent, in the 1950s and 1960s, the US was able to gain much progress in this regard. However, its actions in Korea, Vietnam, and in the Middle East were soon viewed with much cynicism and contempt by the countries affected and by other international watchers and international groups. In short, its actions were viewed as imperialistic and enterprising. For which reason protests and expressions of contempt and dislike for American policies were seen in different countries around the globe. However, it was also viewed with favor by other countries for its commitment to democracy and to freedom. Nevertheless, a closer scrutiny of the US policies in relation to different countries and regions of the world have prompted the surfacing of issues which have impacted much on the economy and the politics of these countries. In the Middle East for example, US interests in its oil products are considered a major consideration for American presence in the region. In turn, their presence has created muc h conflict among the people who see the US as nothing more than an enterprising nation. They object to the presence of American troops in the region, ostensibly sent to maintain peace and order, but to the locals, form part of America’s engine and plan for control over trade and political mandates and activities. In Asia, its presence in the region has been met with mixed reactions. Some countries consider it a â€Å"savior† a â€Å"hero† who has rescued them from Japanese rule. However, in some isolated groups in these very same countries, they are also considered to be opportunists who are seeking to use their natural resources for their economic ends. They are seen as a country which seeks to lessen tariff rates for their personal benefit and for the detriment of these Asian economies. In effect, the US policies are not welcomed with open arms, nor are they completely shunned – for even with these negative mutterings, these countries still know that th e US is the most powerful country in the world. With these scenarios, it is easy to see that the US foreign policies are filled with various angles for discussion which make for enriching knowledge in the field of economy and politics. These policies express the dominance of America in almost all international endeavors, including such endeavors in ensuring worldwide peace and freedom for all. Even as other nations do not share in its goals, the US seems to persist in its goals through its troop presence in the Middle East and in other countries which manifest with civil and political unrest. This paper shall now seek to discuss the US foreign policies in relation to the major events in the past years including the September 11 attacks, the Gulf Wars, and its War against Terror. These are subject matters which have borne much impact to the current status of US politics. This study is being conducted in order to establish a more academic understanding of the issues in relation to the US foreign policies. The Attacks of 9/11 Background The September 11 at

Las 432 - Genetically Modified Foods Essay Example for Free

Las 432 Genetically Modified Foods Essay It has been determined that GMO’s are made up of plants, animals, viruses and bacteria that are created in laboratories. Scientist started experimenting with GMO’s in the early 1950’s with investigation of plants DNA. In the 1970’s scientist developed the first genetically engineered organism. By the early 1990’s biotechnology had expanded on production of GM foods to the public, but this brought fourth concerns. There are also those who believe that the laws and regulations that are attributed to genetically modified foods have been influenced through both the media and political aspects. These influences have brought about worries to GM food consumers and they started comparing the similarities and differences in organic foods and GM foods. Consumers want to know what GM food products they have consumed and will be aware of any affects that may be acquired with consumption. Not only are there consumer challenges that must be faced with these technological experimentations, but also the impacts that may be developed environmentally or effects that may incur with nature and wildlife. Some societies are worried about how the rich will prosper and the poorer countries will suffer and possibly go hungry. Some religions and groups protest eating genes and do not want to consume such un-natural foods and other concerns still the unknown effects on human allergies and transfer of antibiotic resistance to intestine bacterial flora or pathogenic bacteria in our bodies. Genetically Modified Organisms in Food Thesis: Consumers today have a right to know if genetically modified foods are harmful to our health, the environment and our economy. In order to be able to answer these questions more research needs to be done. Summary Controversy around genetically modified foods is becoming big news and sorting through volumes of information can be intimidating. The public is asking a lot of questions about GM foods and they are also raising concerns about the effects these foods may have on their health or the environment. There are different advantages and disadvantages of GM foods, although to what extent they can help or harm humans and the environment is a debatable aspect of this technology. The time has come to look at the decisions that we make about genetic engineering in food crops and if it will have permanent consequences on our food production capacity. Are genetically modified foods putting us at a crossroads in terms of the agricultural legacy that we will leave behind for our children and grandchildren? Modern technology has given us the ability to go beyond selective breeding. Organisms can now be modified by moving genes from one species to another and by introducing synthetic genetic material into their genomes. Humans no longer simply select from variations present in the population: they create new variations! Some find our new power exciting. They dream of crops with greater resistance to disease and insect pests, pigs with healthy fats, and a level of agricultural production sufficient to feed everyone on the planet. Others fear that we have crossed an important boundary and are now tinkering with living systems that we understand incompletely. They question our ability to predict the consequences of our actions and are afraid that we may disrupt the delicate natural order. GMO Technology I. What Are GMOs? GMOs (genetically modified organisms) are plants, animals, viruses and bacteria that are created in the laboratory. Their DNA (genes) has been modified through the use of gene splicing techniques in a desire to create â€Å"new† organisms. The technology involves removing the DNA of one species and inserting it into another species, resulting in new and different varieties of plant, animal, viral and bacterial genes which don’t naturally occur in nature or by hybridizing (Smith, 2012, para. 7). Other names for the technology are â€Å"modern technology or gene technology,† genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology, and biotechnology (World Health Organization (WHO), 2012, para. 2). GMOs are used to create genetically modified plants which in turn are used to create genetically modified crops for human consumption and as animal feed. Developers believe that producers and consumers would be interested in these foods due to their â€Å"built-in† advantages of lower prices, high nutritional value and hardiness. The desire is to achieve crops that are resistant to spoilage, drought, insects and herbicides. At the outset genetically modified (GM) seed manufacturers envisioned their product being used by producers, thus they focused on innovations those farmers, and more generally the food industry, would accept and appreciate (WHO, 2012, para. 3). WHO states that (2012), the initial objective for developing plants based on GM organisms was to improve crop protection. The GM crops currently on the market are mainly aimed at an increased level of crop protection through the introduction of resistance against plant diseases caused by insects or viruses or through increased tolerance towards herbicides† (para. 4). Commodity crops were the First Generation GM crops and included soybean, maize/corn, cotton, canola and sugar beets (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). GM soybeans and canola have permeated the market and can be found in most processed foods, e.g. , spaghetti, candy Schonwald, 2012, p. 25). There was expectation that with the success of first generation crops, biotech specialty crops (produce) would follow, focusing more on consumer tastes. According to Kent Bradford, director of University of California (UC) at Davis’s Seed Biotechnology Center (2012), â€Å"these crops hadn’t been commercialized since 1998† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). The author wondered why, and so enlisted the assistance of Kent Bradford for answers on â€Å"what was going on with bioengineered specialty crops† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). Bradford and a collaborator, Jamie Miller, found that research on specialty crops was underway and had never ceased. The research involved input traits that are important to agriculture such as â€Å"disease resistance,† â€Å"insect resistance,† â€Å"adaptability to certain environments† and output traits that â€Å"improve taste and texture and could lead to changes in the dining experience of the future† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). Schonwald says Bradford contends that (2012), â€Å"There was research on 46 different species with more than 300 traits being tested† (p. 26. ). So things were going on at the research level, but the results were not moving forward. Bradford found this was due to regulatory controls. Because of the lack of consumer confidence in transgenic breeding the regulatory process for genetically modified foods was much different than for non-GMO foods. In contrast, foods using classic breeding processes were considered safe for consumption. But GMO foods were â€Å"guilty until proven innocent† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 26). Schonwald reports that (2012), â€Å"A genetically engineered crop must pass review by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Food and Drug Administration before it is commercialized. The cost could range from $50,000 to tens of millions of dollars to win regulatory approval. For every â€Å"transgenic event,† the genetic engineer must show exactly what genes went into the plant and how they function, and then prove how the plant makeup has been altered. That research is costly. So is plant storage. Once a transgenic creation is spawned at the Plant Transformational Facility, it is whisked to the UC Davis Controlled Environment Facility, where it will stay in a tightly secured warehouse. Or it will be airmailed to some other place, where it will live out its life in another intensely biosecure environment. The process is costly and time-consuming, which partly explains why biotech crop development is largely in the hands of the agribusiness giants – the Monsanto’s, Syngentas, and Bayer Crop Sciences of the world—who have the resources to undertake the process. With such high approval costs, big companies have favored commodity crops with market potential for hundreds of millions of dollars to sales, not tens of millions† ( p. 26) According to Bradford, non-governmental organizations – Greenpeace and the Union of Concerned Scientists – were responsible for the stringent governmental handling of the biotech specialty crops. The $20 million organic foods industry labored to stop the proliferation of GMO foods. They did so by launching a campaign against GMOs, inundating the USDA with thousands of letters (â€Å"275,026 to be exact†) expressing anti-GMO sentiments. This led to the non-inclusion of GMO foods under the USDA’s standards of organic produce (Schonwald, 2012, p. 27). U. S. Leads in Biotech AgricultureMore than 170 million acres of biotech crops are under cultivation in the United States, more than twice Brazil’s acreage, which ranks second. Experts credit faster technological advances, more lenient regulations and expanding economic benefits for the U. S. lead. Biotech acreage by Country, 2011| Country| Acres (in millions)| Biotech crops| United States| 170. 5| Corn, soybean, cotton, canola, sugar beet, alfalfa, papaya, squash| Brazil| 74. 9| Soybean, corn, cotton| Argentina| 58. 6| Soybean, corn, cotton| India| 26. 2| Cotton| Canada| 25. 7| Canola, corn, soybean, sugar beet| China| 9. 6| Cotton, papaya, poplar, tomato, sweet pepper| Paraguay| 6. 9| Soybean| Pakistan| 6. 4| Cotton| South America| 5. 7| Soybean, corn, cotton| Uruguay| 3. 2| Soybean, corn|. Source: Clive James, â€Å"Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011,† International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications, 2011, p. 2, www. isaaa. org/purchasepublications/itemdescription. asp? ItemType=BRIEFSControl=IB043-2011| (McClure, 2012, p. 724) Below is a list of tips on how to say no to GMOs: Tip #1: Buy Organic Certified organic products cannot intentionally include any GMO ingredients. Buy products labeled â€Å"100% organic† â€Å"organic,† or â€Å"made with organic ingredients. † You can be doubly sure if the product also has a Non-GMO Project Verified Seal (see next tip). Tip #2: Look for Non-GMO Project Seals Products that carry the Non-GMO Project seal are independently verified to be in compliance with North America’s only third party standard for GMO avoidance, including testing of at-risk ingredients. Tip #3: Avoid At-Risk Ingredients Even if it’s not labeled organic or verified non-GMO, you can still avoid products made with ingredients that are likely derived from GMOs. The eight most common GM food crops are: *Corn (as in corn oil, cornmeal, cornstarch, and other corn-based ingredients) *Soybeans (as in soybean oil, soy protein, soy lecithin, soy milk, tofu, and other soy-based ingredients). *Canola (as in canola oil) *Sugar beets (the â€Å"sugar† listed on food labels is almost always derived from sugar cane and GM sugar beets) *Most Hawaiian papaya *A small amount of zucchini and yellow squash *Also, beware of dairy products, which may come from cows injected with GM bovine growth hormone, and meats from animals (including farmed fish) that have been fed GM foods. [Instead] look for dairy products labeled No rBGH or rBST, artificial hormone-free, or organic; wild-caught fish; and meat labeled organic or 100% grass-fed. Tip #4: Use Non-GMO Shopping Guides. Download either the new Non-GMO Shopping Tips brochure or Non-GMO Shopping Guide at www. nongmoshoppingguide. com; in order to help identify, avoid GM foods and find hidden GM ingredients on food labels. If you have an iPhone, download the ShopNoGMO guide for free from the iTunes store. Copyright of Better Nutrition is the property of Active Interest Media, Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use (Smith, 2012, p. 14). II. Scientific Techniques and Experiments Various techniques are used to transfer DNA genes into the host cell. Researchers have been perfecting these techniques over the past 40 years. In one technique, target cells are bombarded with heavy metals coated with the gene transferred have been bombarded. Yet another technique transfers genes by using a naturally occurring bacterium along with a pulse of electricity to introduce genes into the targeted cell (McClure, 2012, p. 720). According to McClure (2012), Opponents of GM foods argue that the public should be informed of the techniques used in gene-transferring (p.720). At the Plant Transformation Facility at the UC, Davis more than 15,000 transgenic events have occurred. Transgenic event is the molecular biologists way of describing the blasting of DNA from one life form into another. This building, a short distance from the student union, houses thousands of Petri dishes of microscopic plantlets bathing in pink and fluorescent blue lights. Here biologists use a gas-pump-like tool called the Helium Particle Delivery system to mix sexually incompatible species together. They use gold bullets (literally) to fire genes from one species into another in a bombardment chamber. As a result the â€Å"Davis lab has birthed grapes spiked with jellyfish, tomatoes spiked with carp, transgenic squash, transgenic carrots, and transgenic tomatoes† (Schonwald, 2012, p. 25). In Changing Genes to Feed the World, David Pimentel takes a look at one molecular biologist’s account of plant breeding and the field of genetic engineering of crops. In her book, Mendel in the Kitchen, author Nina Fedoroff compares the contributions of genetically engineered plants with that of early plant breeding research, e. g. , development of hybrid corn, achieved through the transfer of genes within the confines of crop species. This method contributed greatly to the growth of crop yields during the Green Revolution. Specifically, according to Fedoroff (2004), traditional methods of cross breeding were responsible for, â€Å"40 percent of the increase in yields. The remaining 60 percent was due to greater inputs in fossil-fuels energy, fertilizers and pesticides† (Pimentel, 2004, paras. 1-2). Crop yields increased greatly during the years 1950-1983. Globally, 80 percent of the calories consumed by humans came from grains, making the Green Revolution an important feeding mechanism for billions of people around the world (Pimentel, 2004, para. 2). Though the use of traditional breeding methods greatly increased the yield and quality of crops, these methods were quite slow, in comparison to the advances being made in the field of molecular biology and genetic engineering. Before, breeders were required to manually manipulate genetic material within a specific crop to increase yields. Now, through genetic engineering, genes can quickly be transferred from one plant species to another and brought into crops (Pimentel, 2004, para. 3). As more and more genetically modified foods are being integrated into our food systems, there is a need to be able to detect their presence in food products in order to determine if food manufacturers are in â€Å"compliance with labeling requirements† (Yi, Yien-Chian, Foo-Peng Lee, and Nam-Trung, 2009, para. 1). There is a method that allows for the rapid detection of the presence of GMOs in foods and it is called ferrofluid-driven PCR microchip. â€Å"The microchip was fabricated in polymethyl methacrylate by CO? laser ablation and was integrated with three temperature zones. PCR solution was contained in a circular closed micro channel and was driven by magnetic force generated by an external magnet through a small oil-based ferrofluid plug. Successful amplification of genetically modified soya and maize were achieved in less than 13 minutes. This PCR microchip combines advantages of cycling flexibility and quick temperature transitions associated with two existing microchip PCR techniques, and it provides a cost saving and less time-consuming way to conduct preliminary screening of GMOs† (Yi, Yien-Chian, Foo-Peng Lee, Nam-Trung, 2009, para. 1). History of GMO’s I. Biotechnology Chronology â€Å"1950s – 1960s: Scientists identify genes and begin investigating the role of DNA in plant development. 1953-American biochemist James Watson and British biophysicist Francis Crick describe the structure of DNA, setting the stage for mapping the genetic code. 1967-Lenape potato, a new variety bred for making potato chips is withdrawn from experimental production after high levels of toxin are found. 1970s – 1980s: Scientists begin experimenting with genetic transformation of plants and animals. 1973-Scientists create first genetically engineer organism. 1983-Researchers transfer new DNA into plants, leading to the creation of genetically modified crops. 1989-Calene Inc. receives U. S. patent for gene sequence in GM Flavr Savr tomato. 1990s: Biotech foods are marketed to the public despite environmental and health concerns. 1992-FDA decides not to require labeling of most GM foods, sparking mistrust of the technology. 1993-FDA allows cows to be injected with bovine growth hormone (rBGH) made from genetically modified bacteria, setting off consumer protests. 1994-FDA approves Flavr Savr tomato, first GM food approved for sale to consumers. 1996-Monsanto introduces Roundup Ready soybeans, first of several popular herbicide-tolerant or insecticide-producing crops. 1998- European Union (EU) halts approvals of new GM crops in what is termed an â€Å"unofficial moratorium. † 2000s: Genetically engineered foods face continued criticism despite growing scientific consensus that they do not pose greater safety risks than conventional crops. 2000-Bowing to international demands, U.S. officials agree to label GM commodities for export†¦. Weeds resistant to Roundup discovered in Delaware†¦. Friends of the Earth, a major environmental group, reports that genes from StarLink corn, a GM crop approved only for animal consumption, have been discovered in taco shells. The discovery prompts recalls of corn products and lawsuits, but researchers are unable to document any human health effects†¦. Centers for disease Control study concludes StarLink did not cause allergic reactions claimed by 28 people. 2002-National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy finds that GM crops in the United States produced four billion pounds of additional foods and fiber on the same acreage, improved farm income by $1. 5 billion and reduced pesticide use by 46 million pounds†¦. Monsanto announces it will delay introduction of GM wheat amid concerns from farmers that it will harm exports. 2003-Bollworms resistant to the Bt toxin, an insecticide produced by GM cotton, discovered in the South. 2004-Under U. S. pressure, EU drops de facto ban on GM crops but institutes mandatory labeling; many European stores won’t stock GM foods because of consumer fears. 2008-Monsanto sells unit that produces rBGH, as major grocers including Wal-Mart, Publix and Kroger decline to sell milk from cows treated with the product. 2010-After approving the sale of GM eggplant, India’s environment minister declares a moratorium on the product because of public outcry. 2011-GM crops are grown on 395 million acres of farmland globally, though more than 90 percent is in just three crops: soybeans, corn and cotton. 2012-Anti-GMO groups file petitions containing more than 1 million signatures demanding that the FDA require GM foods to be labeled†¦. Californian vote scheduled for Nov. 6 on ballot initiative requiring labeling for GM foods† (McClure, 2012, p. 727). II. Advantages and Disadvantages The people of the United States (U. S. ) have been unknowingly consuming GMO foods since the 1990s. The Food and Drug Administration scientists warned that these new foods had the capability to produce new allergens and toxins and advised that more thorough testing was needed. But the U. S. government’s position was that GM foods were equivalent to non-GMO foods and failed to require labeling and testing (Smith, 2012, para, 9). According to the American Academy of Environmental Medicine (AAEM), eating GMO foods contributes to a number of health risks (Smith, 2012),â€Å"including infertility, immune system issues, accelerated aging, disruption of insulin and cholesterol regulation, gastrointestinal issues, and changes in organs† (para. 9). AAEM reported that doctors most likely are seeing negative health effects in their patients and may not realize that GMO foods are the culprit. Doctors are urged to prescribe non-GMO diets for all of their patients (Smith, 2012, para. 9). The environment is not exempt from the risks of GMO foods. There is the threat of GMO seeds contaminating nearby fields of organic and non-GMO crops. Pesticide usage has dramatically increased over the first thirteen years since the GM crops were introduced. Further, high amounts of herbicide usage on GM herbicide –resistant crops have caused the development of â€Å"superweeds† that adapt to and withstand your typical herbicides (Smith, 2012, para. 10). On the positive side, genetic engineering offers a wonderful solution to farmers, especially those in developing countries, and that is the opportunity for developing perennial grains. As most grains are annual crops, tilling and replanting of the soil is required every single year. This involves an enormous amount of energy each year, including fossil and human energy and strength. Annual tillage also results in soil erosion. Planting perennial grains would mean that farmers would only need to till and replant every five or six years. This would be a major benefit for farmers in developing countries, as tilling for them involves 400 hours per hectare, hand-tilling their fields prior to planting their crops. As such, according to the author, â€Å"plant breeding and genetic engineering will continue to make a tremendous contribution to our food supply† (Smith, 2012, para. ). Other advantages of GM foods include disease resistance, cold tolerance, drought resistance, nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and phytoremediation (Whitman, 2012, pp. 2-4). Legal and Political Issues I. Regulations and Laws There have been an abundant number of studies done in the past on American health and safety standards that have demonstrated the inconsistencies of risk assessment. Some standards are rather strict and offer few or no benefits in savings lives, preventing diseases or injuries; while other standards have been negligent and have placed a considerable amount of lives at risk or harm. It is essentially due to the passage of these standards for which the American regulatory policy making has been implanted. In the past, both Congress and the political appointees who head regulatory agencies have been very susceptible to public opinion and public pressures. As a result, the more the American public is prone to worry about a particular risk, the more meticulous American policy-makers are likely to regulate it. â€Å"Therefore, many of the American regulatory policies, especially those between the mid 1960s through the mid 1980s, were characterized by the triumph of passion over sound science. (Vogel, 2001). In 1984, the Federal Government established a formal policy that is referred to as â€Å"The Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology†. This policy describes the Federal system for evaluating products that have been developed using modern biotechnology. â€Å"The Coordinated Framework is based upon health and safety laws developed to address specific product classes and involves the cooperation of three federal regulatory agencies; the EPA, the USDA, and the FDA. The U. S. Government has written new regulations, policies and guidance to implement these laws for biotechnology as products have developed† (United States Regulatory Agencies Unitied Biotechnology Website, 2012). EPA Regulation â€Å"Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), the EPA regulates the use of intergeneric microorganisms in commerce or commercial research. The EPA considers intergeneric microorganisms to be those formed from organisms in different genera (genera is the plural of genus, which is a level in a taxonomic classification system based on the relatedness of organisms) or those microorganisms formed with synthetic DNA not from the same genus† (Biotechnology Program under the Toxic Substances Control Act, 2012). â€Å"The EPA believes that inter generic micro organisms have a sufficiently high likelihood of expressing new traits or new combinations of traits to be termed new and warrant EPA review. The Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPT), Biotechnology Program conducts a screening program for new microorganisms under section 5 of TSCA. In 1997, the EPA published regulations that fully implement its pre-manufacture program for microorganisms under TSCA section 5. Prior to 1997; the EPA operated its biotechnology program in accordance with the 1986 Policy Statement† (Biotechnology Program under the Toxic Substances Control Act, 2012) USDA Regulation. | â€Å"USDA supports the safe and appropriate use of science and technology, including biotechnology, to help meet agricultural challenges and consumer needs of the 21st century. USDA plays a key role in assuring that products produced using biotechnology are safe to be grown and used in the United States. Once these products enter commerce, USDA supports bringing these and other products to the worldwide marketplace† (Bitechnology, 2012). | â€Å"The Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) was originally established in February, 2003 and first met in June, 2003. Under its Charter, the committee is charged with examining the long-term impacts of biotechnology on the U. S. food and agriculture system and USDA, and providing guidance to USDA on pressing individual issues, identified by the Office of the Secretary, related to the application of biotechnology in agriculture. The AC21 is a broad-based committee representing a wide range of interests and agricultural expertise† (USDA Advisory Committee on Biotechnology 21st Century Agriculture (AC21), 2012). FDA Regulation â€Å"In the Federal Register of May 29, 1992 (57 FR 22984), FDA published its Statement of Policy: Foods Derived from New Plant Varieties. The 1992 policy clarified the agencys interpretation of the application of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act with respect to human foods and animal feeds derived from new plant varieties and provided guidance to industry on scientific and regulatory issues related to these foods (Genetically Engineereed Plants for Food and Feed, 2012). The 1992 policy applied to all foods derived from all new plant varieties, including varieties that are developed using recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) technology. This site refers to foods derived from plant varieties that are developed using rDNA technology as bioengineered foods† (Genetically Engineereed Plants for Food and Feed, 2012). â€Å"In the Federal Register of January 18, 2001 (the premarket notification proposal; 66 FR 4706), FDA issued a proposed rule that would require that developers submit a scientific and regulatory assessment of the bioengineered food 120 days before the bioengineered food is marketed. In the premarket notification proposal, FDA recommends that developers continue the practice of consulting with the agency before submitting the required premarket notice† (Genetically Engineereed Plants for Food and Feed, 2012) The chief statutes under which the above agencies have been given regulatory or Review authority comes from the following Act’s: * The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (EPA); * The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) (EPA); * The Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA) (FDA and EPA); * The Plant Protection Act (PPA) (USDA); * The Virus Serum Toxin Act (VSTA) (USDA); * The Public Health Service Act (PHSA)(FDA); * The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) (FDA) * The Meat Inspection Act (MIA)(USDA); * The Poultry Products Inspection Act (PPIA) (USDA); * The Egg Products Inspection Act (EPIA) (USDA); and * The National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA)(Guide to U. S. Regulations of Genetically Modified Foods and Argricultural Biotechnology Products, 2001) II. Current Political Issues Genetically modified foods have been a concern for many people around the world. In the past Europeans have been the most vocal in their resistance to GM foods and crops, to the point that they have implemented strict labeling requirements for any genetically modified foods sold. In the absence of stronger health and safety data, many national governments across the world have taken steps to lessen the existence of GE food within their borders. â€Å"In Europe, six nations (Austria, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, and Luxembourg) have enacted bans on the cultivation and import of GE products, and nearly 50 nations worldwide require that all GE foods be labeled as such† (Dahl, 2012). To date in the United State there have been no mandatory labeling requirements for genetically modified foods. However this may soon change, Americans are now starting to ask questions about what they are eating and suspicions about the health and environmental effects of biotechnology is now behind the demand that foods from genetically modified crops be labeled. The most recent labeling effort that has come to the fore front is the California ballot initiative Proposition 37 called â€Å"The Right to Know†. What is Proposition 37? The California â€Å"Right to Know† Genetically Engineered Food Act is easy: The initiative would basically require food that is sold in retail outlets to be labeled if it is produced through genetic engineering, and would not allow these products to be labeled as â€Å"natural. † Prop 37 allows companies 18 months to change their product labels, and allows for the GMO disclosure to appear wherever they choose on the packaging (Facts Yes on Prop 37, 2012). If this initiative passes, California will be the first state to require all foods that have genetically modified crops in them to be labeled. However, there is an opposing side to this Proposition. Those that are against Proposition 37 feel that by having to label all foods with genetically engineered crops would mean higher food prices due to the cost of re-package existing foods, recordkeeping, or companies being forced to switch to higher priced non-GM foods. The opposing side also states that it would add more government bureaucracy and taxpayers cost, and create frivolous lawsuits (Stop the Deceptive Food Labeling Scheme, 2012). This is one political debate that will have everyone on the edge of their chairs. III. What are the Possible Health Effects of GM Foods? With so many of our foods today now coming from GM crops, questions are now being asked if there is a health risk from GM foods. The problem is that unlike the safety evaluations that are required for the approval of a new drug, the safety evaluations of genetically engineered foods for human consumption has not been as strict. So what is known about possible health issues from the consumption of GM foods? Scientists from around the world have been complaining that a majority of the research that is being done about the possible side effects of GM foods for human consumption is being conducted by scientists that are associated with the biotechnology companies; the same companies that are selling the crops seeds. That and the fact that these studies are being done by the biotechnology companies tend to show that there are no health problems associated with eating GM foods. The problem is this is a one sided research study. One of the biggest problems that independent researchers are facing is that it is extremely hard to get GM seeds in order to conduct any type of research. These seeds can only be purchased through a licensed seed dealer and a technology licensing agreement must be signed stating that no research will be done on the seed; this includes any research attributed to health and environment. Scientists who have managed to do research on the health impacts of the GM seeds are often harassed, intimidated, and defamed by those with a strong interest in the GM technology. Even with these challenges researcher have managed to conduct medical research on the health effects of GM seeds; of these tests the most obvious concern has been the risk of allergic reactions.

Tips for Boosting Search-Engine Rankings :: Sell Websites Buy Websites

Tips for Boosting Search-Engine Rankings Reprinted with permission of VotanWeb.com Every online retailer would love to improve their search-engine rankings. Many disreputable companies are taking advantage of this fact by collecting huge sums while guaranteeing websites consistently high rankings. Unfortunately, the guarantees are as illusive as the companies offering them. Kyle Brenner learned an expensive lesson when launching his first website. He paid $13,000 in total to two companies that promised to put his website at the top of search-engine listings for searches on popular phrases for his website. Each company guaranteed they could keep his website at the top of the listings. In each case, the website's ranking rose to the top and then, all of a sudden, it was gone. Unfortunately, when you fall off the search engines, you're out of business. Mr. Brenner was just another victim of disreputable search-engine optimization companies which offer guaranteed rankings on search engines. The companies he hired specialized in search-engine optimization (SEO), the process of helping place a site high in search-engine rankings when Web surfers look for information related to the site. The firms claimed they could â€Å"fake out† the search engines. All they really did was â€Å"rip-off† Mr. Brenner. The bottom line is this, only search engines have control over the way sites are ranked in search results. George Miran hired an SEO company that promised to improve her site's rankings and keep them high. The firm achieved this by editing the site's copy to include keywords, writing more search-engine-friendly Web coding, and arranging for related sites to link to hers. This approach isn’t voodoo, it’s just common sense. SEO firms can't guarantee top search-engine rankings because search engines are constantly changing the way they rank Web sites. No SEO firm has inside access to those changes. . Before hiring an SEO company, ask for references from past clients to learn about their experiences. Reputable firms explain what they do in plain English and they are happy to provide a list of previous clients. Many website owners believe that they need to submit their Web site to every search engine on the planet. Nothing could be further from the truth. Your website only send to be included in the top few search engines that are used in 99% of all searches. Some search engines will list you more quickly if you submit your website to them. Google, on the other hand, finds sites on their own from links on sites already in their databases.

Legislation affecting schools Essay

Linked to the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights. Under this Act individuals in the UK have particular rights and freedoms however these have to balance against the rights and freedoms of others. Some articles which have a direct link to education/schools are: Article 2: The first protocol – the right to education (however this does not mean the right to a particular school). Article 8: The right to respect for private and family life. Article 10: The right to freedom of expression. Restraints of pupils are permitted under the Act however each school has their own policy and procedure for this. All children have a right to an education. Pupils have a freedom of expression. Data Protection Act 1998 Means that schools need to keep and use information only for the purpose it was intended. It also needs to be kept securely on site, either locked away in a filing cabinet or on a password protected computer. If required to update and pupil information this should be done on site and not be taken off site to complete. All information about pupils should be considered confidential and must not be shared with others without parental consent. When discussing pupils with other members of staff you should make sure that only necessary information is shared The school is protected over personal information it holds The school should issue a letter informing parents of how pupil data is protected. Schools must follow the act over how they handle data (password computers, locked cabinets). Staff need to be aware of this and reminded. Freedom of Information Act 2000 Introduced in 2005 to promote transparency and accountability in the public sector. It is retrospective and information can be sought from any time in  the past. Any person can request information for a school however this must be done in writing. Schools have a duty to provide assistance and advice to anyone who requests information but on the other hand they must evaluate the situation if they need to protect the information for confidentiality. The DCFS has produced guidance for schools and governing bodies to give advice about requesting information. Parents/students have the right to request information held by schools and local authorities. Information for information must be done in writing. Equality of Opportunity Sex Discrimination The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 makes it unlawful for education establishments to directly or indirectly discriminate pupils based on their sex, gender or sexual orientation. Admissions policies are available to be seen at hand. Local authorities are also under general duty to ensure that educational facilities and services are provided without sex discrimination. Many bodies can be held responsible for discrimination under the SDA. Race Discrimination The law states that all schools or colleges must not discriminate against people on the grounds of race in any of its policies or practices including admissions policies. All local educational authorities also have a legal duty not to discriminate. Local educational authorities have a duty to have a race equality policy and should take steps to discourage racial attacks. All schools should follow the local authority policies. Disability Discrimination Act To protect disable people from discrimination in the workplace and in the provisions. All schools have a duty to make adjustments that may be needed to ensure that the child is made welcome and is supported at all times. Schools must adhere to the Equality Act 2010. Schools cannot discriminate against pupils because of their sex, sexual orientation or gender. Children are taught about equality and diversity. No sexist book or exams. Toys that are accessible must be accessible to all. Ensure they have a Racial Discrimination Act. Have a duty to protect pupils against abuse or violence. Must no discriminate against anyone because of their race Relates to class rooms as well- all work displayed not discriminating. Schools must adhere to inclusive education. They cannot exclude on the grounds of disability or special needs. The head teacher must seek advice if needed from local authorities. Schools must have accessible resources. Staff training days to update knowledge. Special Educational Needs Special Educational Needs and Disabilities Act Special educational need also known as SENDA. It is unlawful for educational providers to treat disabled children â€Å"less favorably† than they would other children. institutions are required to make â€Å"adjustments† for example providing aids like ramps. LEAs and schools plan together to make the access easier for disabled children. All registered early years providers must have a written SEN policy and a SENCO. They should also make arrangements for staff to participate in any relevant training. All pupils must not be excluded from any aspects of school due to the disability. Legislation will affect how the schools are run as they will need to comply fully with legal requirements. Schools may need to ask advice and guidance if and when needed this will usually be through the governing bodies. Special Educational Needs Code of Practice SEN code of practice, parents and SEN children have an increased right to a mainstream education. This may have an impact on the number of children who have SEN being included in mainstream schools and on the number of individual support assistants who will support them. Training and implications have been put in to place in order to support individuals and schools must now manage pupils with a more diverse range of need. Schools need to ensure they make reasonable provisions to ensure people with SEN are provided with the same opportunities as those who are not disabled. Could be through 1:1 support or building adaptions e.g. disabled toilets, ramps and sensory rooms. The school must make the best decisions to provide best values for the child with special needs. For example: a child may receive a considerable amount of IPS (Individual pupil funding) and the school must decide the best way to use this support for the child’s needs. Sources: www.yourrights.org.uk www.adviseguide.org.uk www.kingston.gov.uk

Hospitality and Destiny in the Odyssey and Sundiata Essay

Princeton’s Wordnet defines hospitality as â€Å"[the act of] cordial reception: [or] kindness in welcoming guests or strangers.† Since the start of this semester, we have read about two different journeys in which hospitality plays an important role in fulfilling the destiny of the main character. In Homer’s Odyssey, many examples of this are apparent, whether they are for the benefit or the downfall of the protagonist Odysseus. However, Odysseus is not the only one whom hospitality rules. His son Telemachus also is affected by his hospitality towards others. In Niane’s Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali, the theme of hospitality runs thick throughout the narrative, as Sundiata is greatly affected by how the other characters receive him. If it were not for the hospitable acts shown to both of the weary travelers, Odysseus and Sundiata may not have been able to return to their homeland. The extreme observance of hospitality in the two texts may be compared with the golden rule: treat others, as you would like to be treated. The rule of hospitality may also be applied to the gods. In the time of Odysseus, gods or deities could take the form of humans or alter human appearance. If a stranger showed up at your door, you might not know whether they are mortal or immortal. If you turned away a god or someone loved by the gods, this could anger them and in turn they could avenge your inhospitable act. The gods might respond with not giving you a good harvest or make your life a complete hell, as Poseidon did to the journey of Odysseus. Good hospitality was to be displayed towards everyone, no matter age or gender. In The Odyssey, not only was Odysseus treated well by the lords of the lands he visited, but, his young son, Telemachus, was treated with respect. In Sundiata, hospitality was not only showed towards men, but also women. When Sassouma forced Sogolon into exile, the neighboring lands and kings she and her children encountered treated them with generosity. In The Odyssey many hospitable acts were displayed before kings even knew who had ventured to their land. When Telemachus travels to Pylos seeking information about his father, King Nestor treated him and Pallas Athena with much respect. As they approached the citadel King Nestor and his son spotted them. â€Å"As soon as they saw the strangers, all came crowding down, urging  them to sit. Nestor’s son Pisistratus, first to reach them, grasped their hands and sat them down at the feast on fleecy throws† (Homer 108, lines 39-44). This demonstrates how welcoming the Pylians are towards strangers. This is truly a hospitable greeting because the Pylians were not just carousing around, but in fact were involved in a feast in honor of the god Poseidon. They invited these foreign guests in as if they were members of the royal family to take part in the feast. Menelaus, like Nestor, treated his guest as part of the royal family before knowing their names. Menelaus provided Telemachus and Pisistratus with food but not just any food but, â€Å"He passed them a fat rich loin with his own hands, the choicest part, that he’d been served himself† (Homer 126, 74-75). The Greeks loved to eat and what an honor it would have been to be given the kings slab of meat. He also had women bathe them, rub them with oil, and provide them with warm fleece and shirts to wear. Before Telemachus was to leave, Menelaus insisted on giving him many gifts but Odysseus’ young son respectfully declined any such gifts. Menelaus insisted on giving him a mixing bowl forged to perfection made of solid silver with a lip of gold made by Hephaestus himself (Homer 144, 692-694). The hospitality shown by Menelaus is a great example of treating others as you would like to be treated. Menelaus, the great and lustrous king, showered his guest with the best of everything, as he would have wanted done for him. Not only in The Odyssey and ancient Greece was hospitality shown towards strangers, but it also occurred in Sundiata. The first stop on the exile journey of Sundiata was Djedeba. The king there received them with a little mistrust, but mentioned that everywhere the stranger enjoys the right to hospitality (Niane 29). The stay with the king of Djedeba lasted two months and not much is mentioned in the novel of what was given to Sundiata and his family. But the stay with Djedeba emphasizes the point that even though someone may be wary of allowing strangers to stay with them, the act of hospitality is entitled to all strangers who need a place to stay. Those who were members of the highest social class were not the only ones expected to practice hospitality. Hospitable acts were to be practiced by  and towards all social classes. When Odysseus returned to Ithaca, Athena disguised him by dressing him in beggar clothes. She directed him towards the swineherd’s establishment. The swineherd had to save the king from his beastly dogs and after this invited him into his home. The swineherd, Eumeaus, told Odysseus, â€Å"It’s wrong, my friend, to send any stranger packing-even one who arrives in worse shape than you† (Homer 303, 64-65). Odysseus told him, â€Å"May Zeus and the other gods give you your hearts desire for the royal welcome you have shown me here† (Homer 303, 60-62). The hospitality that was shown towards the beloved king no doubt pleased the gods. Even though the swineherd could not provide the extravagant baths, bedding, and food of kings, he still gave Odysseus the best of what he had. Odysseus was invited by the swineherd to sit down on a pile of brush and twigs covered with the skin of a shaggy wild goat, which was the swineherd’s own good bedding. He fed the king scrawny pigs that were freshly slaughtered. This was the best food that could be offered by the swineherd because the suitors who overran the home of Odysseus took the fattened pigs. The hospitality shown by the swineherd proves that one does not have to offer the best of things to show hospitality towards strangers. Hospitable acts were not expected only to be shown towards the living, but the deceased deserved the same rights. In Sundiata, when it came time to leave Mema and return to Mali, Sogolon passed away. Sundiata said to the king, â€Å"King, you gave me hospitality at your court when I was without shelter†¦In any case, allow me to bury my mother before I go† (Niane 46). The king was outraged that Sundiata wanted to leave his country and at first refused. But either it was fear, or out of respect he had for Sundiata, or a combination of both, Sundiata got his wish. Burial grounds were provided for Sogolon in the country of Mema. Showing hospitality towards the dead is as important towards showing it towards the living. Hospitality was not to go unnoticed either; hospitable acts were expected to be repaid when the time arose. A great example of repaying hospitality came from Menelaus. Telemachus and Nestor’s son arrived outside the gates of  Menelaus’ estate and lord Eteoneus runs through the halls and delivers the news to the battle-hardened king and ask, â€Å"Should we unhitch their team for them or send them to someone free to host them well†(Homer 125, 33-34)? Menelaus responds hastily, â€Å"Just think of the hospitality we enjoyed at the hands of other men before we made it home†¦And bring them in strangers, guest, to share our flowing feast†(Homer 125, 38-39, 41-42). Menelaus wants to show the same hospitality to those who visit his land just as the rulers showed him when he was in need. Political alliances also proved to be good situations to practice hospitality. One of the stops on the exile journey of Sundiata and his family was the region of Ghana. When they arrived they were greeted by the king’s brother who made them comfortable and brought water for them to quench their thirst. After Sogolon explained where they were from and why they were in exile the king, Soumamba, responded, â€Å"No one has ever found our hospitality wanting. My court is your court and my palace is yours† (Niane 34). The reason for easy welcoming of the strangers was the history of the relationship between Mali and Ghana. The king also said to his brother, â€Å"Brother, look after our guests. Let Sogolon and her children be royally treated and from tomorrow let the princes of Mali sit among our children† (Niane 34). Another hospitable act in Sundiata, which involved alliances between nations, happened again in Mema. This alliance had to do with the family relationship of two kings. Upon their arrival at Mema, the sister of the king greeted Sogolon and her family and housed them in a wing of the palace. They were recommended by Soumaba to come to Mema, and after showing the king of Mema, Moussa Tounkara, a letter from Soumamba the king said, â€Å"My cousin Soumaba recommends you and that is enough. You are at home. Stay here as long as you wish† (Niane 36). Sundiata became so beloved by the people and the king that he became viceroy and even secured a spot as heir to the throne of Mema. This is example of hospitality starts out as a friendly gesture, and evolves into a new set of hierarchal position for the traveling family. The hospitality shown by the people of Mema allowed the exiled royal family of Mali to become pretty much citizens of this new country. The act of hospitality is prevalent in both the Odyssey and Sundiata. Not  only do kings of regions and countries practice this act, but hospitality is expected to be practiced by everyone regardless of their social class. Hospitality should be shown towards everyone regardless how the two parties affiliate with one another. Hospitality goes along way in the stories of Odysseus and Sundiata. It creates relationships with lands that others fear, like the region of Ghana in Sundiata. It also creates relationships with those who have no prior relationships to those of foreign lands, like Telemachus creates with the comrades of his father. If only this type of hospitality was prevalent in society today our world would be a much more friendly and fearless place to live. Fagles, Robert. The Odyssey. New York: Penguin, 1996. Niane, D. T. Sundiata: an Epic of Old Mali. Harlow: Longman, 2006.

Free Essays on Descartes

â€Å"Therefore, now that I have freed my mind from all cares, and I have secured for myself some leisurely and carefree time, I withdraw in solitude. I will in short, apply myself earnestly and openly to the general destruction of my former opinions.† (Rene Descartes, Meditation I) â€Å"Whatever I had admitted until now as most true I took in either from the senses or through the senses; however, I noticed that they sometimes deceived me. And it is a mark of prudence never to trust wholly in those things which have once deceived us.† (Rene Descartes, Meditation I) Descartes’ Mediations combined equal the embodiment of an effort to establish a foundation for knowledge. Each mediation serving almost as a mental/intellectual rung to achieve the heights of just how we as humans arrive at knowledge. A feat tackled by many a philosopher, Descartes’ method is one that begins with the practice of doubt, systematic doubt. Exemplified in the excerpts from the first meditation, Descartes’ cast himself and the reader into a role of the perplexed being. Perplexed, for all that was or is known may in fact be false if doubt is added into the equation. This addition, thus negating the experiences brought about by the senses. Descartes points out the fallibility of the senses, for they often deceive. The experience of the fallible senses is one that is a commonality, for many have thought an object was closer than it was, or could swear that they heard their name called in the distance. It is agreeable then, that Descartes is right, the senses do deceive, so how can we trust that which does deceive? Descartes says that we cannot, and we should apply doubt, in order to avoid the fallible. In this First Mediation, Descartes’ acknowledges the existence of God or a Supreme Being, as it is already present in his mind. With an ultimate being, God, the creator, as responsible for all things, Desc artes challenges the motives of God.... Free Essays on Descartes Free Essays on Descartes The classical way of thinking was that what we know first, and best is what we perceive with our senses. Rene Descartes was a revolutionary philosopher because he went against the classical Aristotelian way of thinking. Descartes stated, that what we know through the senses is more doubtful then what we perceive through our own reason. Therefore what we know first, we know with the greatest certitude, because he does not want to believe anything else that he has learned in the past, and wants to believe what he discovers for himself. He also said that anything that we can doubt, we should not take to be true because our senses can deceive us. Descartes goes against all other ways of thinking, and believes that what we know through reason and what we learn first is what we know with the most certainty. The order in which we know things, according to Descartes, all stems out from his base philosophy, which is â€Å"I think therefore I am.† â€Å"I think therefore I am† is the basis of Descartes’s philosophy. Because â€Å"I think therefore I am† is the first thing that Descartes bases his philosophy on, and it is what he knows the greatest. Since it is the first thing that he learned, it is also the thing that he knows with the greatest certainty. We know things according to Descartes by what we know first, and since we know â€Å"I think therefore I am† first that is where we begin to learn all things according to Descartes. â€Å"In order to think, it is necessary to exist.† By thinking Descartes comes to the conclusion that he does in fact exist because he thinks. If he thinks, he exists, therefore that is the order that we know things according to Descartes. We must first come to the realization that we exist because we think , and then we can begin to understand Descartes’s other steps. â€Å"†¦ That the things we conceive very clearly and very distinctly are all true.† This is another of Descartes’s most bas... Free Essays on Descartes In this essay, I propose to explain Descartes's system of methodic doubt. It will be necessary to look at his thoughts throughout his work in â€Å"The meditations†. I will also show how Descartes subjected to doubt, all that could be possibly doubted, and arrived at the indubitable proposition: Cogito ergo sum, or I think, therefore I am. I will also explain how Descartes proceeded from this basis to prove the existence of God. Finally, I will conclude with how these two propositions together, for Descartes, established the certainty of human knowledge. Descartes devised his system of methodic doubt in order to discover an indubitable belief, which he could use as a certain, and secure foundation as the basis for knowledge. For Descartes it was necessary to look inside himself at all the beliefs he once held as true, and subject them to the strongest of doubts. For the purpose of freeing himself from all preconceived opinions, he allowed himself to believe that all his past beliefs were false and imaginary, as he states in the first meditation: " So, for the purpose of rejecting all my opinions, it will be enough if I find in each of them at least some reason for doubt." (Cottingham 1984, p12). This provided Descartes with the easiest path by which to lead the mind away from the senses. In considering how far doubt can be extended, he begins by questioning his sense perception. Descartes realises that everything that he has up till now accepted as true has been acquired either from the senses or through the senses. However there have been times when he has found that his senses can deceive, such as when objects may appear differently from various points of view, and that therefore it is highly probable that other things which appear certain through the senses may in reality be illusions. On further reflection, Descartes ponders the proposition of being asleep or awake. He wonders if this is something that cannot be doubted. Ho... Free Essays on Descartes Upon cursory examination, one might assume that Rene Descartes is a â€Å"non-believer† in the existence of a heavenly being, a God that presides over humans and gives us faith. However, this is simply not the case – Descartes is simply trying to destroy all of the uncertainties that have come about by the attempted scientific explanations of such a supreme being. For Rene Descartes and all of the other believers in the world, the existence of God provides a convenient answer to unexplained questions, while never providing answers to the questions about God himself. This is evidenced a great deal in the circular argument made by Descartes in the Meditations on First Philosophy. What follows is a brief account of the third and fifth meditations, which provide Descartes’ response to the masked question, â€Å"What is God?† Can one perceive or confirm the existence of an idea that is external to him, an idea such as God? In order to determine the answer we mu st start by understanding the ways in which we can conclude an objects’ existence. Descartes explains three ways in which a person might come to such a conclusion – the first, through nature; the second, through feeling a value that is independent of the will of the object; and the third, the objective reality of an idea, or the â€Å"cause and effect profile.† The third point is the one that we will primarily spend our time with. Descartes drills us with the idea that an object will have an effect when it stems from a legitimate cause, or an initial idea that precedes with equal or superior properties in one’s intellect. In other words, the mind generates thoughts and ideas about a physical form, and develops a reality for this form, through previous schema and beliefs. â€Å"And although an idea may give rise to another idea, this regress cannot, nevertheless, be infinite; we must in the end reach a first idea, the cause of which is, as it were, the ar chetype in which all the rea... Free Essays on Descartes â€Å"Therefore, now that I have freed my mind from all cares, and I have secured for myself some leisurely and carefree time, I withdraw in solitude. I will in short, apply myself earnestly and openly to the general destruction of my former opinions.† (Rene Descartes, Meditation I) â€Å"Whatever I had admitted until now as most true I took in either from the senses or through the senses; however, I noticed that they sometimes deceived me. And it is a mark of prudence never to trust wholly in those things which have once deceived us.† (Rene Descartes, Meditation I) Descartes’ Mediations combined equal the embodiment of an effort to establish a foundation for knowledge. Each mediation serving almost as a mental/intellectual rung to achieve the heights of just how we as humans arrive at knowledge. A feat tackled by many a philosopher, Descartes’ method is one that begins with the practice of doubt, systematic doubt. Exemplified in the excerpts from the first meditation, Descartes’ cast himself and the reader into a role of the perplexed being. Perplexed, for all that was or is known may in fact be false if doubt is added into the equation. This addition, thus negating the experiences brought about by the senses. Descartes points out the fallibility of the senses, for they often deceive. The experience of the fallible senses is one that is a commonality, for many have thought an object was closer than it was, or could swear that they heard their name called in the distance. It is agreeable then, that Descartes is right, the senses do deceive, so how can we trust that which does deceive? Descartes says that we cannot, and we should apply doubt, in order to avoid the fallible. In this First Mediation, Descartes’ acknowledges the existence of God or a Supreme Being, as it is already present in his mind. With an ultimate being, God, the creator, as responsible for all things, Desc artes challenges the motives of God.... Free Essays on Descartes Since Descartes’ brain-in-a-vat analogy, people have pondered whether they really exist. Even in today’s modern times, movies like ‘The Matrix’ exemplify the modern paradigm of Descartes’ example. So can we prove we exist? In this paper, I hope to show that we can, but not the context we exist within. I will use the example of ‘The Matrix’ to not only show that a theoretical Matrix could deceive us, but also a more plausible and finite Matrix. Descartes’ ‘cognito ergo sum’ (‘I think therefore I am’) is a perfectly valid method of proving we exist. The fact that we are thinking about our existence proves we exist! Unfortunately, this is as far as Descartes and myself agree - he uses this argument to corroborate the idea that the mind can exist without the body. Yet how can a non-physical entity think? I firmly believe that the act of thinking is a physical process - sensory information (or other events) triggers neurons to fire within the brain that in turn excites various other areas and causes chemical reactions that consequentially affects what we think and feel. Therefore, an entity that does not physically exist cannot think. Dualism complicates matters by creating a double meaning for ‘am’ (and any other word related to the person or being). There is the physical meaning of ‘am’, existing within the physical world. Then there is the more abstract meaning of ‘am’ - one’s personality, one’s being and (dare I say it) one’s soul. Therefore, I may be taking Descartes’ meaning of ‘am’ out of context by using it as a combination of both the physical and the mental (since the mental is physical). The problem that surfaces here is the degree of physicality that has to be associated with ‘being’ (or am-ness). How much of our physical body must be intact to consider us being. Our current Matrix example is safe, since the body is kept intact. Yet, the brain-in-a-vat example is different... Free Essays on Descartes â€Å"I am something real and really existing, but what thing am I? I have already given the answer: a thing which thinks.† Rene Descartes was a modern European thinker. Throughout his meditations he constantly implies that we are â€Å"things that think†. Our bodies, these things, are just a jumbled mess of flesh, blood and bone. It is thinking that creates the person. Thinking is what separates humans from the rest of the animal kingdom. In â€Å"Meditations on First Philosophy†, Descartes says â€Å"I am something real and really existing, but what thing am I? I have already given the answer: a thing which thinks† (pg. 26). This passage explains that the best way to learn is by questioning our very existence. I agree with this belief wholeheartedly. It is up to us to use our senses and minds to develop and explore our beliefs on life. Life would be quite boring if we believed everything we heard. Ineffability, or an individual experience which makes it incapable of being imparted, is when one feels most alive and what sets us apart from others. Skepticism is described as doubting everything and is a frequently used method by Descartes. He doubts the fact that he is really living; maybe what he is doing at this moment is dreaming. â€Å"As if I did not remember other occasions when I have been tricked exactly similar thoughts while asleep! As I think about this more carefully, I see plainly that there are never any sure signs by means of which being awake can be distinguished from being asleep† (pg.19). This quote is found in Descartes first meditation where he doubts many physical things. He is not saying that nothing exists. He is simply saying that there is no way to know; no proof they do exist. I agree very much with this declaration that Descartes made. He knows that there is no proof that the world doesn’t exist and he states that. I certainty agree that it is not certain that the world we are living in is act... Free Essays on Descartes DESCARTES’ IDEA OF A PERFECT BEING In his meditations, Descartes points out that there are three types of ideas; they can be innate, adventitious, caused by things outside of one’s self, and others that can be invented by us, such as ideas of mermaids or unicorns. After he concludes that God must necessarily exist, which will be discussed in more detail later on in this paper, he closes in to the fact that his idea of the Perfect Being cannot be adventitious, coming from without, nor can it be invented by him. Thus, this idea must be innate since he has a clear and distinct perception of God’s existence, and that Descartes must have been created by God with such an idea already in him. The idea of a Perfect Being in Descartes’ mind consists of an infinite, eternal, immutable, independent, supremely intelligent as well as a powerful substance, which created him and everything else. Thus he realizes that the idea of God must have far more objective reality than he has formal reality because God is an infinite substance where as he himself is only a finite substance. Having explained the idea of Descartes’ perfect being lets go into more detail on the process he uses to prove that such being actually exists. Descartes’ proof of the existence of God occurs in the Third Meditation. He builds his entire argument upon his proof in the previous meditation that in order for him to think, he must exist. From this single observation, Descartes notices that the idea of his existence is very clear and distinct in his mind; based upon this clarity and the fact that he has just determined his own existence, he deduces a rule such that the things that he sees as very clear and very distinct are all true. Descartes starts his proof by dividing â€Å"thought† into four categories; ideas (concepts), volitions (choices), emotions (desires), and judgments (beliefs). He then breaks down these categories to discover which types of tho... Free Essays on Descartes In this essay, I propose to explain Descartes's system of methodic doubt. It will be necessary to look at his thoughts throughout his work in â€Å"The meditations†. I will also show how Descartes subjected to doubt, all that could be possibly doubted, and arrived at the indubitable proposition: Cogito ergo sum, or I think, therefore I am. I will also explain how Descartes proceeded from this basis to prove the existence of God. Finally, I will conclude with how these two propositions together, for Descartes, established the certainty of human knowledge. Descartes devised his system of methodic doubt in order to discover an indubitable belief, which he could use as a certain, and secure foundation as the basis for knowledge. For Descartes it was necessary to look inside himself at all the beliefs he once held as true, and subject them to the strongest of doubts. For the purpose of freeing himself from all preconceived opinions, he allowed himself to believe that all his past beliefs were false and imaginary, as he states in the first meditation: " So, for the purpose of rejecting all my opinions, it will be enough if I find in each of them at least some reason for doubt." (Cottingham 1984, p12). This provided Descartes with the easiest path by which to lead the mind away from the senses. In considering how far doubt can be extended, he begins by questioning his sense perception. Descartes realises that everything that he has up till now accepted as true has been acquired either from the senses or through the senses. However there have been times when he has found that his senses can deceive, such as when objects may appear differently from various points of view, and that therefore it is highly probable that other things which appear certain through the senses may in reality be illusions. On further reflection, Descartes ponders the proposition of being asleep or awake. He wonders if this is something that cannot be doubted. Ho... Free Essays on Descartes The classical way of thinking was that what we know first, and best is what we perceive with our senses. Rene Descartes was a revolutionary philosopher because he went against the classical Aristotelian way of thinking. Descartes stated, that what we know through the senses is more doubtful then what we perceive through our own reason. Therefore what we know first, we know with the greatest certitude, because he does not want to believe anything else that he has learned in the past, and wants to believe what he discovers for himself. He also said that anything that we can doubt, we should not take to be true because our senses can deceive us. Descartes goes against all other ways of thinking, and believes that what we know through reason and what we learn first is what we know with the most certainty. The order in which we know things, according to Descartes, all stems out from his base philosophy, which is â€Å"I think therefore I am.† â€Å"I think therefore I am† is the basis of Descartes’s philosophy. Because â€Å"I think therefore I am† is the first thing that Descartes bases his philosophy on, and it is what he knows the greatest. Since it is the first thing that he learned, it is also the thing that he knows with the greatest certainty. We know things according to Descartes by what we know first, and since we know â€Å"I think therefore I am† first that is where we begin to learn all things according to Descartes. â€Å"In order to think, it is necessary to exist.† By thinking Descartes comes to the conclusion that he does in fact exist because he thinks. If he thinks, he exists, therefore that is the order that we know things according to Descartes. We must first come to the realization that we exist because we think , and then we can begin to understand Descartes’s other steps. â€Å"†¦ That the things we conceive very clearly and very distinctly are all true.† This is another of Descartes’s most bas... Free Essays on Descartes I am going to discuss Descartes’ first and second Meditations concerning doubt. I will first summarize what Descartes was trying to say and prove, and explain why he was unsuccessful in his search for a foundation in which he could build knowledge from. In Descartes first meditation he discusses that he has come to the conclusion that many of his beliefs and opinions he had as a child are doubtful. Descartes decides that in order to find out the â€Å"truths† he must disprove his current â€Å"knowledge.† He goes about this by a radical system of doubt and says that he must â€Å"attack those principles which supported everything I once believed (144).† His method of doubt allows him to eliminate anything and everything that has even the smallest possibility of not being factual. Descartes does not necessarily doubt everything that he brings up. In Descartes’ first meditation, he tries to disprove all of his fundamental beliefs. First, he doubts that he can trust his senses because they can be fooled. An example of this is the refraction that happens when a pencil is placed in water; it looks broken, even though it really is not. Descartes then states that there are no definitive signs for him to tell weather he is awake or asleep. And since he cannot trust his senses, he concludes that there is no way to determine whether he is awake or asleep. He does say that there are some things that remain consistent when he is awake and asleep; namely, math. 2 + 2 still = 4 in a dream, and a square will still have four sides whether you are asleep or awake. His point is that even though there a things that remain constant in a dream, they are so vivid sometimes that you cannot tell if you are really conscious. To disprove these beliefs Descartes abandons the idea of a supremely good God like he has believed in all his life and brings up the argument that God is an omnipotent, omniscient, evil genius whose entire purpose is to dec... Free Essays on Descartes DESCARTES (1596-1650) Descartes was a French mathematician and philosopher. It was Descartes who formulated the adage, Cogito ergo sum, "I think therefore I exist." Also, something that really sticks with me is his reasoning in lui of Copernican theory- Descartes also said that knowledge cannot be based on perception (our senses, etc) alone. Descartes was a product of the church and his philosophy reflected the times in which he lived. Descartes was a dualist believing a man was of two natures, a spiritual nature and a temporal nature. Now whether this was a belief held deeply, might be a matter of some question. What is clear is that he would have professed his beliefs, such, that, they were in keeping with the doctrine of the time, as spread by the all powerful church. As a dualist, Descartes, would have accepted that there exists a priori truth (truths not derived from experience; truths such as the existence of God). And, while Descartes accepted some ideas were developed from experience, he was firm in his belief that certain ideas were innate. By pure deduction Descartes evolved for himself entire universes that neither he, nor anyone else, could perceive by the use of their natural senses. All that was necessary, for Descartes, was intense self examination and intense reason, and, through this process, all would b e revealed. Descartes, it would seem, in his philosophical work, continued along the same lines of the church philosophers: the deductive approach, accepting notions which have no basis in reality, and then to proceed to build on those. Something the church was famous for (Catholics still are!). No one can trust the result of such a process: a conclusion can never be more trustworthy than the premises on which it is built. For one to profess a belief in such a process in such a philosophy is to profess one's ignorance of the fundamental universal principles, or natural laws, which have guided man along ... Free Essays on Descartes In the â€Å"Mediations of First Philosophy† Descartes tries to prove the existence of God in the third meditation. He does this by coming up with several premises that eventually add up to a solid argument. First, I will explain why Descartes ask the question, does god exist? And why does Descartes think he needs such and argument at this point in the text. Secondly, I will explain, in detail, the arguments that Descartes makes and how he comes to the conclusion that God does exist. Next, I will debate some of Descartes premises that make his argument an unsound one, including circular reasoning. Finally, I will see if his unsound argument has diminished and undermined his principal goals and the incorrigible foundation of knowledge. In earlier meditations Descartes proved that he existed through the Cogito argument. Descartes must now move on to examine and explore questions about the world around him, but instead of doing this he first stop to examine the question of whether or not God exists. Descartes wants to know that he was created by an all knowing, perfect creator that is good and wants to make sure that he was not created by an evil spirit or demon. If Descartes can prove that he was created by a perfect all knowing creator then his ideas must carry some semblance of truth, because God is not a deceiver and he must of placed these ideas in Descartes. Descartes has good reasons for searching for the answer to the question of God’s existence, now he has to come up with a good sound argument to prove it. Throughout the â€Å"Meditations on First Philosophy† Descartes gives a couple of major arguments about the existences of god, he gives one argument in the third meditation and on in the fifth meditation. The argument in meditation three and the one we will focus on is known as the â€Å"Trademark Argument†. This argument comes from the fact claimed by Descartes that inside of everyone is a supreme being, which is place... Free Essays on Descartes [All page references and quotations from the Meditations are taken from the 1995 Everyman edition] In the Meditations, Descartes embarks upon what Bernard Williams has called the project of 'Pure Enquiry' to discover certain, indubitable foundations for knowledge. By subjecting everything to doubt Descartes hoped to discover whatever was immune to it. In order to best understand how and why Descartes builds his epistemological system up from his foundations in the way that he does, it is helpful to gain an understanding of the intellectual background of the 17th century that provided the motivation for his work. We can discern three distinct influences on Descartes, three conflicting world-views that fought for prominence in his day. The first was what remained of the mediaeval scholastic philosophy, largely based on Aristotelian science and Christian theology. Descartes had been taught according to this outlook during his time at the Jesuit college La Flech_ and it had an important influence on his work, as we shall see later. The second was the scepticism that had made a sudden impact on the intellectual world, mainly as a reaction to the scholastic outlook. This scepticism was strongly influenced by the work of the Pyrrhonians as handed down from antiquity by Sextus Empiricus, which claimed that, as there is never a reason to believe p that is better than a reason not to believe p, we should forget about trying to discover the nature of reality and live by appearance alone. This attitude was best exemplified in the work of Michel de Montaigne, who mockingly dismissed the attempts of theologians and scientists to understand the nature of God and the universe respectively. Descartes felt the force of sceptical arguments and, while not being sceptically disposed himself, came to believe that scepticism towards knowledge was the best way to discover what is certain: by ... Free Essays on Descartes In Meditations on First Philosophy, Rene’ Descartes discusses the existence of external objects, primarily in the First Meditation. Descartes doubts the existence of external objects based upon the idea that an ‘evil genius’ exists instead of an ideally good God. This ‘evil genius’ strives at deceiving Descartes. Descartes now assumes that all external objects- â€Å"the heavens, the air, the earth, colors, shapes, sounds†- are nothing more than hoaxes produced by the ‘evil genius’ and therefore do not exist. At the end of the First Meditation, thinking and perception remains certain because your own thinking and perception is the only thing you can believe because it exists in your mind and not in the external world, which can be altered by things such as the ‘evil genius’. In discussing the existence of external objects, Descartes must also include the existence of God. The existence of God is based upon the ‘ontological argument’. The ontological argument is that God is a â€Å"being than which none greater can be thought†. The meaning of the argument is that the concept of God is the greatest being who can be thought, and therefore He must exist. The counter argument is an argument against the ontological argument. It discusses that existence is an essential property and part of the definition of a thing, that is God. The counter argument says that existence is not a property and cannot be part of a definition. Descartes attempts to prove the existence of God and his own self. Descartes argues that God exists as the necessary thing that first caused all other causes in the world, but Descartes has not yet proved that there is a world. Descartes argues that we can only think of this idea of God because a real God exists whom makes it possible for us to have this idea of God himself. Descartes also argues that without God we would not exist because God causes things in this world to exist, that is...